Some aspects of the diagnosis and treatment of eosinophilic granuloma in cats.

Introduction: Eosinophils represent the most active cells in mammals that show protective and assistive activity in the host immune defence against helminth parasites. These cells are also responsible for the reduction of allergic and inflammatory reactions. The eosinophils play a key role in allergic reactions by secretion of different chemical molecules leading to swelling, lesions and granuloma onset. Material and Methods: The study was carried out on 30 cats with inflammatory skin lesions. The cats ranged in age from seven months to 13 years, and had an average age of three years. The research methodology included information on the disease, dermatological conclusions, concomitant disorders, medical and laboratory data and the treatment strategy. Results: In total, 30 cats were diagnosed with eosinophilic granuloma complex. The distribution of lesions was 87.1% in the skin and 12.9% at the skin-mucosal junction. The lesions increased and decreased with the seasons of spring and summer, and the onset of the disease usually coincided with exposure to fleas. Conclusion: Eosinophilic granuloma complex in cats is a serious pathology and frequently requires lifelong treatment, so it is important to diagnose it quickly and accurately to ensure optimal treatment of affected animals.

Nine Years of African Swine Fever in Poland.

(1) Background: African swine fever (ASF) is a highly contagious and fatal haemorrhagic disease in domestic pigs and wild boars, causing significant economic loss to the swine industry in the European Union. The genotype II of African swine fever has spread in many European countries since the virus was detected in 2007 in Georgia. In Poland, the genotype II of the ASF virus was confirmed on 17 February 2014 in the eastern part of the country and appeared to have been transmitted to Poland from Belarus. Poland has been particularly affected by ASF epidemics in the last decade, resulting in a significant decline in the Polish pig population. Wild boars are the main reservoir of the African swine fever virus (ASFV), but human activities such as transportation and illegal animal trade are the primary reasons for the long-distance transmission of the disease. (2) Conclusions: During the nine years of ASF in Poland, multiple measures have been taken to prevent the spread of the virus among the wild boar population via the passive and active surveillance of these animals. With regard to pig farms, the only effective measure for preventing the spread of ASF is the efficient enforcement by state authorities of the biosecurity standards and the farmers' compliance with them.

African Swine Fever: Transmission, Spread, and Control through Biosecurity and Disinfection, Including Polish Trends.

African swine fever is a contagious disease, affecting pigs and wild boars, which poses a major threat to the pig industry worldwide and, therefore, to the agricultural economies of many countries. Despite intensive studies, an effective vaccine against the disease has not yet been developed. Since 2007, ASFV has been circulating in Eastern and Central Europe, covering an increasingly large area. As of 2018, the disease is additionally spreading at an unprecedented scale in Southeast Asia, nearly ruining China's pig-producing sector and generating economic losses of approximately USD 111.2 billion in 2019. ASFV's high resistance to environmental conditions, together with the lack of an approved vaccine, plays a key role in the spread of the disease. Therefore, the biosecurity and disinfection of pig farms are the only effective tools through which to prevent ASFV from entering the farms. The selection of a disinfectant, with research-proven efficacy and proper use, taking into account environmental conditions, exposure time, pH range, and temperature, plays a crucial role in the disinfection process. Despite the significant importance of ASF epizootics, little information is available on the effectiveness of different disinfectants against ASFV. In this review, we have compiled the current knowledge on the transmission, spread, and control of ASF using the principles of biosecurity, with particular attention to disinfection, including a perspective based on Polish experience with ASF control.

Multi-Residue Method for Pesticides Determination in Dried Hops by Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry.

In this study a multi-residue determination method for 36 pesticides in dried hops was reported. The sample preparation procedure was based on the acetate buffered QuEChERS method. A few mixtures of dispersive solid phase extraction (dSPE) sorbents consisting PSA, C18, GCB, Z-Sep and Z-Sep+ were investigated to clean-up the supernatant and minimize matrix co-extractives. The degree of clean-up was assessed by gravimetric measurements, which showed the best results for mixtures containing the Z-Sep+ sorbent. This is the first study to apply Z-Sep+ sorbent for hops material and the first to improve the method for pesticide residues determination in hops. Samples were analysed using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and the procedure was validated according to the SANTE/11813/2017 document at four concentration levels: 0.02, 0.05, 0.1 and 1 mg/kg. The limits of quantification (LOQ) were in the range of 0.02-0.1 mg/kg. For all active substances, the trueness (recovery) ranged from 70 to 120% and the precision (RSDr) value was <20%. Specificity, linearity and matrix effect were also evaluated. The validated method was applied to the analysis of 15 real dried hop samples and the relevant data on detected residues were included.

Ten Years of African Swine Fever in Ukraine: An Endemic Form of the Disease in the Wild Boar Population as a Threat to Domestic Pig Production.

(1) Background: African swine fever (ASF) has been present in Ukraine for more than ten years (2012-2022). The purpose of our study was to perform a retrospective analysis of the spread of ASF to assess the role of wild boar in the epizootic expansion in Ukraine. (2) Methods: Statistical materials were collected and the epizootic situation of ASF from 2012 to 2022 was examined. The potential sources of the African swine fever virus (ASFV) and transmission factors were analysed. The main factors exerting negative impacts on domestic pig production were also analysed. (3) Results: Consequently, from the results of the retrospective analysis of ASF outbreaks in Ukraine, the probability ratio of ASF outbreaks in the wild boar and domestic pig populations was determined. The data show a direct relationship between ASF outbreaks among wild boar and domestic pigs with the observed decay of wild boar outbreaks across the entire territory of Ukraine. At the same time, an increase in the number of wild boars has been observed in the Mykolaiv region, with a parallel spillover of outbreaks in domestic pigs. (4) Conclusions: The epidemiological situation observed for ASF in the wild boar population may suggest an endemic form of the disease. This may further complicate eradication programs and the protection of domestic pig farms from ASF outbreaks. An additional and major reason to control the ASF epizootic is the continuing military Russian offensive in Ukraine.

Epidemiological analyses of African swine fever in the European Union: (September 2020 to August 2021).

This report provides a descriptive analysis of the African swine fever (ASF) Genotype II epidemic in the affected Member States in the EU and two neighbouring countries for the period from 1 September 2020 to 31 August 2021. ASF continued to spread in wild boar in the EU, it entered Germany in September 2020, while Belgium became free from ASF in October 2020. No ASF outbreaks in domestic pigs nor cases in wild boar have been reported in Greece since February 2020. In the Baltic States, overall, there has been a declining trend in proportions of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-positive samples from wild boar carcasses in the last few years. In the other countries, the proportions of PCR-positive wild boar carcasses remained high, indicating continuing spread of the disease. A systematic literature review revealed that the risk factors most frequently significantly associated with ASF in domestic pigs were pig density, low levels of biosecurity and socio-economic factors. For wild boar, most significant risk factors were related to habitat, socio-economic factors and wild boar management. The effectiveness of different control options in the so-named white zones, areas where wild boar densities have been drastically reduced to avoid further spread of ASF after a new introduction, was assessed with a stochastic model. Important findings were that establishing a white zone is much more challenging when the area of ASF incursion is adjacent to an area where limited control measures are in place. Very stringent wild boar population reduction measures in the white zone are key to success. The white zone needs to be far enough away from the affected core area so that the population can be reduced in time before the disease arrives and the timing of this will depend on the wild boar density and the required population reduction target in the white zone. Finally, establishing a proactive white zone along the demarcation line of an affected area requires higher culling efforts, but has a higher chance of success to stop the spread of the disease than establishing reactive white zones after the disease has already entered in the area.

Point-of-Care and Label-Free Detection of Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome and Swine Influenza Viruses Using a Microfluidic Device with Photonic Integrated Circuits.

Swine viral diseases challenge the sector's sustainability by affecting productivity and the health and welfare of the animals. The lack of antiviral drugs and/or effective vaccines renders early and reliable diagnosis the basis of viral disease management, underlining the importance of point-of-care (POC) diagnostics. A novel POC diagnostic device utilizing photonic integrated circuits (PICs), microfluidics, and information and communication technologies for the detection of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) and swine influenza A (SIV) was validated using spiked and clinical oral fluid samples. Metrics including sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, precision, positive likelihood ratio (PLR), negative likelihood ratio (NLR), and diagnostic odds ratio (DOR) were calculated to assess the performance of the device. For PRRSV, the device achieved a sensitivity of 83.5%, specificity of 77.8%, and DOR values of 17.66, whereas the values for SIV were 81.8%, 82.2%, and 20.81, respectively. The POC device and PICs can be used for the detection of PRRSV and SIV in the field, paving the way for the introduction of novel technologies in the field of animal POC diagnostics to further optimize livestock biosecurity.

ASF -survivors' Sera Do Not Inhibit African Swine Fever Virus Replication in Vitro.

Introduction: African swine fever virus (ASFV) causes one of the most dangerous diseases of pigs and wild boar - African swine fever (ASF). Since its second introduction into Europe (in 2007), the disease has been spreading consistently, and now ASF-free European countries are at risk. Complex interactions between the host's immune system and the virus have long prevented the development of a safe vaccine against ASF. This study analysed the possibility of neutralisation of the ASFV in vitro by sera collected from ASF-survivor animals. Material and Methods: Two pig and three wild boar serum samples were collected from previously selected potential ASF survivors. All sera presented high antibody titres (>5 log10/mL). Primary alveolar macrophages were cultured in growth medium containing 10% and 20% concentrations of selected sera and infected with a haemadsorbing ASFV strain (Pol18_28298_O111, genotype II). The progress of infection was investigated under a light microscope by observing the cytopathic effect (CPE) and the haemadsorption phenomenon. Growth kinetics were investigated using a real-time PCR assay. Results: Haemadsorption inhibition was detected in the presence of almost all selected sera; however, the inhibition of virus replication in vitro was excluded. In all samples, a CPE and decreasing quantification cycle values of the viral DNA were found. Conclusion: Anti-ASFV antibodies alone are not able to inhibit virus replication. Interactions between the humoral and cellular immune response which effectively combat the disease are implicated in an ASF-survivor's organism.

How do genetic relatedness and spatial proximity shape African swine fever infections in wild boar?

The importance of social and spatial structuring of wildlife populations for disease spread, though widely recognized, is still poorly understood in many host-pathogen systems. In particular, system-specific kin relationships among hosts can create contact heterogeneities and differential disease transmission rates. Here, we investigate how distance-dependent infection risk is influenced by genetic relatedness in a novel host-pathogen system: wild boar (Sus scrofa) and African swine fever (ASF). We hypothesized that infection risk would correlate positively with proximity and relatedness to ASF-infected individuals but expected those relationships to weaken with the distance between individuals due to decay in contact rates and genetic similarity. We genotyped 323 wild boar samples (243 ASF-negative and 80 ASF-positive) collected in north-eastern Poland in 2014-2016 and modelled the effects of geographic distance, genetic relatedness and ASF virus transmission mode (direct or carcass-based) on the probability of ASF infection. Infection risk was positively associated with spatial proximity and genetic relatedness to infected individuals with generally stronger effect of distance. In the high-contact zone (0-2 km), infection risk was shaped by the presence of infected individuals rather than by relatedness to them. In the medium-contact zone (2-5 km), infection risk decreased but was still associated with relatedness and paired infections were more frequent among relatives. At farther distances, infection risk further declined with relatedness and proximity to positive individuals, and was 60% lower among un-related individuals in the no-contact zone (33% in10-20 km) compared among relatives in the high-contact zone (93% in 0-2 km). Transmission mode influenced the relationship between proximity or relatedness and infection risk. Our results indicate that the presence of nearby infected individuals is most important for shaping ASF infection rates through carcass-based transmission, while relatedness plays an important role in shaping transmission rates between live animals.

Virucidal Activity of Plant Extracts against African Swine Fever Virus.

African swine fever is one of the most dangerous and fatal swine diseases, described for the first time roughly a hundred years ago. Even now, there is neither a commercially approved vaccine nor treatment available. The only way to hinder further spread of the disease is by culling the affected herds and applying prevention based mainly on proper biosecurity. Due to growing awareness of the potential ASF threat among pig producers, disinfection processes are considered as one of the most important preventive measures. Currently, a variety of chemical compounds are applied for the disinfection of pig farms. Meanwhile, these chemicals may pose a potential risk, due to their toxic, irritant or corrosive effect. The aim of this study was to determine whether any plant-based natural compounds may show a virucidal effect against ASFV, and simultaneously be depleted of some of the side-effects typical for chemical compounds. Ideally, natural virucidal compounds should be safe for both humans and animals, biodegradable, easily available and inexpensive. Fourteen plant extracts were selected and screened for their virucidal effect against ASFV, using the suspension test inspired by the PN-EN 14675:2015 European Standard procedure. The results of our study showed that most of the tested plant extracts were ineffective against ASFV. Some extracts suspended in a hydroglycolic medium exhibited high virus titre reduction, but it was confirmed that the effect resulted from medium composition. However, a 1.05% peppermint extract showed high effectiveness against ASFV, reducing the virus titre by ≥4 log10, thus demonstrating that natural compounds used as virucidal agents could potentially be used in disinfection procedures, being both effective and harmless to humans and animals.

African Swine Fever in Wild Boar (Poland 2020): Passive and Active Surveillance Analysis and Further Perspectives.

African swine fever (ASF) is a fatal hemorrhagic disease of wild boar and domestic pigs which has been present in Poland since 2014. By 2020, the ASF virus (ASFV) spread across Central, Eastern and Western Europe (including Germany), and Asian countries (including China, Vietnam, and South Korea). The national ASF eradication and prevention program includes continuous passive (wild boar found dead and road-killed wild boar) and active (hunted wild boar) surveillance. The main goal of this study was to analyze the dynamic of the spread of ASF in the wild boar population across the territory of Poland in 2020. In that year in Poland, in total 6191 ASF-positive wild boar were declared. Most of them were confirmed in a group of animals found dead. The conducted statistical analysis indicates that the highest chance of obtaining an ASF-positive result in wild boar was during the winter months, from January to March, and in December 2020. Despite the biosecurity measures implemented by holdings of domestic pigs, the disease also occurred in 109 pig farms. The role of ASF surveillance in the wild boar population is crucial to apply more effective and tailored measures of disease control and eradication. The most essential measures to maintain sustainable production of domestic pigs in Poland include effective management of the wild boar population, along with strict implementation of biosecurity measures by domestic pig producers.

Dynamics of African swine fever virus (ASFV) infection in domestic pigs infected with virulent, moderate virulent and attenuated genotype II ASFV European isolates.

This study aimed to compare the infection dynamics of three genotype II African swine fever viruses (ASFV) circulating in Europe. Eighteen domestic pigs divided into three groups were infected intramuscularly or by direct contact with two haemadsorbent ASFVs (HAD) from Poland (Pol16/DP/ OUT21) and Estonia (Est16/WB/Viru8), and with the Latvian non-HAD ASFV (Lv17/WB/Rie1). Parameters, such as symptoms, pathogenicity, and distribution of the virus in tissues, humoral immune response, and dissemination of the virus by blood, oropharyngeal and rectal routes, were investigated. The Polish ASFV caused a case of rapidly developing fatal acute disease, while the Estonian ASFV caused acute to sub-acute infections and two animals survived. In contrast, animals infected with the ASFV from Latvia developed a more subtle, mild, or even subclinical disease. Oral excretion was sporadic or even absent in the attenuated group, whereas in animals that developed an acute or sub-acute form of ASF, oral excretion began at the same time the ASFV was detected in the blood, or even 3 days earlier, and persisted up to 22 days. Regardless of virulence, blood was the main route of transmission of ASFV and infectious virus was isolated from persistently infected animals for at least 19 days in the attenuated group and up to 44 days in the group of moderate virulence. Rectal excretion was limited to the acute phase of infection. In terms of diagnostics, the ASFV genome was detected in contact pigs from oropharyngeal samples earlier than in blood, independently of virulence. Together with blood, both samples could allow to detect ASFV infection for a longer period. The results presented here provide quantitative data on the spread and excretion of ASFV strains of different virulence among domestic pigs that can help to better focus surveillance activities and, thus, increase the ability to detect ASF introductions earlier.

Epidemiological analysis of African swine fever in the European Union (September 2019 to August 2020).

An update on the African swine fever (ASF) situation in the 10 affected Member States (MS) in the EU and in two neighbouring countries from the 1 September 2019 until the 31 August 2020 is provided. The dynamics of the proportions of PCR- and ELISA-positive samples since the first ASF detection in the country were provided and seasonal patterns were investigated. The impact of the ASF epidemic on the annual numbers of hunted wild boar in each affected MS was investigated. To evaluate differences in the extent of spread of ASF in the wild boar populations, the number of notifications that could be classified as secondary cases to a single source was calculated for each affected MS and compared for the earliest and latest year of the epidemic in the country. To evaluate possible risk factors for the occurrence of ASFV in wild boar or domestic pigs, a literature review was performed. Risk factors for the occurrence of ASF in wild boar in Romanian hunting grounds in 2019 were identified with a generalised linear model. The probability to find at least one PCR-confirmed ASF case in wild boar in a hunting ground in Romania was driven by environmental factors, wild boar abundance and the density of backyard pigs in the hunting ground area, while hunting-related variables were not retained in the final model. Finally, measures implemented in white zones (ASF-free zones that are geographically adjacent to an area where ASF is present in wild boar) to prevent further spread of ASF were analysed with a spatially, explicit stochastic individual-based model. To be effective, the wild boar population in the white zone would need to be drastically reduced before ASF arrives at the zone and it must be wide enough. To achieve the necessary pre-emptive culling targets of wild boar in the white zone, at the start of the establishment, the white zone should be placed sufficiently far from the affected area, considering the speed of the natural spread of the disease. This spread is faster in denser wild boar populations. After a focal ASF introduction, the white zone is always close to the infection hence pre-emptive culling measures in the white zone must be completed in short term, i.e. in a few months.

Blood Counts, Biochemical Parameters, Inflammatory, and Immune Responses in Pigs Infected Experimentally with the African Swine Fever Virus Isolate Pol18_28298_O111.

This study aimed to indicate the influence of infection caused by genotype II African swine fever virus (ASFV)-isolate Pol18_28298_O111, currently circulating in Poland, on blood counts, biochemical parameters, as well as inflammatory and immune responses. Blood and sera collected from 21 domestic pigs infected intranasally with different doses of virulent ASFV were analysed. The infection led to variable changes in blood counts depending on the stage of the disease with a tendency towards leukopenia and thrombocytopenia. The elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) concentrations and microscopic lesions in organs confirmed the development of the inflammation process, which also resulted in an increased level of biochemical markers such as: Aspartate transaminase (AST), creatine kinase (CK), creatinine, and urea. Antibodies could be detected from 9 to 18 days post infection (dpi). Two survivors presented the highest titer of antibodies (>5 log10/mL) with a simultaneous increase in the lymphocyte T (CD3+) percentage-revealed by flow cytometry. Results confirmed a progressive inflammatory process occurring during the ASFV infection, which may lead to multiple organs failure and death of the majority of affected animals.

Effectiveness of Chemical Compounds Used against African Swine Fever Virus in Commercial Available Disinfectants.

African swine fever (ASF) causes huge economic losses and is one of most dangerous diseases of pigs. The disease is known for almost 100 years, an effective vaccine or treatment is still unavailable, only proper biosecurity measures, including disinfection, are being applied, in order to prevent disease outbreaks. Eight active substances, i.e., formaldehyde, sodium hypochlorite, caustic soda, glutaraldehyde, phenol, benzalkonium chloride, potassium peroxymonosulfate and acetic acid, were tested, in order to confirm their effectiveness against African swine fever virus (ASFV). This specific selection was done based on the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE)'s recommendation and previous disinfectant studies on surfaces. The result of our study shows that most of them inactivate the virus, in recommended concentrations. In order to reduce the cytotoxicity of the four substances, Microspin S-400 HR columns were applied, therefore making it possible to demonstrate four logarithms virus titer reduction. Sodium hypochlorite, glutaraldehyde, caustic soda and potassium peroxymonosulfate showed the best ASFV inactivation rates, achieving titer reductions over 5 logs. Despite microfiltration, the virucidal activity of formaldehyde was not assessable, due to its high cytotoxicity. Our results showed that cleaning is particularly important, because removal of the soiling provides improved effectiveness of the tested chemical compounds.

The Spillover of African Swine Fever in Western Poland Revealed Its Estimated Origin on the Basis of O174L, K145R, MGF 505-5R and IGR I73R/I329L Genomic Sequences.

The African swine fever epidemic occurred in Poland at the beginning of 2014 and, up to date, the disease has been spreading mainly in the eastern part of the country. Unexpectedly, in November 2019 an infected wild boar case was confirmed in Lubuskie voivodship in western Poland. During the following weeks, several dozen African swine fever virus (ASFV)-positive animals were notified in the neighboring area, causing severe concern regarding further spread of the disease to the mostly pig-dense region in Poland, namely, Wielkopolskie voivodship. Moreover, almost a year after, several infected wild boar cases were confirmed for the first time in Germany, just beyond the Polish border, sending out a shock wave through the global pig market. The whole genome sequence of ASFV, isolated from the first case of ASF in western Poland, and three selected viruses from other affected areas, revealed the tandem repeat and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) variations in reference to the Georgia 2007/1 strain. These data, supported by the conventional sequencing of selected genomic regions from a total of 154 virus samples isolated between 2017 and 2020 in Poland, shed a new light on pathogen epidemiology. The sequence variations within the O174L gene detected in this study showed that cases identified in western Poland might be originating from the so-called southern Warsaw cluster. Moreover, the viruses originating from the northern Warsaw cluster do not possess single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) mutations within the K145R and MGF 505-5R genes, which are specific to all of the other Polish ASFV strains. These results led to a conclusion of their distinct origin. Supporting these results, the nucleotide sequencing of I73R/I329L intergenic region revealed its new, previously undescribed variant, called IGR IV, with an additional three tandem repeats of 10 nucleotides in comparison to the reference sequence of the Georgia 2007/1 strain.

Animal Coronaviruses in the Light of COVID-19.

Coronaviruses are extremely susceptible to genetic changes due to the characteristic features of the genome structure, life cycle and environmental pressure. Their remarkable variability means that they can infect many different species of animals and cause different disease symptoms. Moreover, in some situations, coronaviruses might be transmitted across species. Although they are commonly found in farm, companion and wild animals, causing clinical and sometimes serious signs resulting in significant economic losses, not all of them have been classified by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) as hazardous and included on the list of notifiable diseases. Currently, only three diseases caused by coronaviruses are on the OIE list of notifiable terrestrial and aquatic animal diseases. However, none of these three entails any administrative measures. The emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 infections that have caused the COVID-19 pandemic in humans has proved that the occurrence and variability of coronaviruses is highly underestimated in the animal reservoir and reminded us of the critical importance of the One Health approach. Therefore, domestic and wild animals should be intensively monitored, both to broaden our knowledge of the viruses circulating among them and to understand the mechanisms of the emergence of viruses of relevance to animal and human health.

Attempts at the Development of a Recombinant African Swine Fever Virus Strain with Abrogated EP402R, 9GL, and A238L Gene Structure using the CRISPR/Cas9 System.

INTRODUCTION: African swine fever (ASF) is a pressing economic problem in a number of Eastern European countries. It has also depleted the Chinese sow population by 50%. Managing the disease relies on culling infected pigs or hunting wild boars as sanitary zone creation. The constraints on the development of an efficient vaccine are mainly the virus' mechanisms of host immune response evasion. The study aimed to adapt a field ASFV strain to established cell lines and to construct recombinant African swine fever virus (ASFV) strain. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The host immune response modulation genes A238L, EP402R, and 9GL were deleted using the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/caspase 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) mutagenesis system. A representative virus isolate (Pol18/28298/Out111) from Poland was isolated in porcine primary pulmonary alveolar macrophage (PPAM) cells. Adaptation of the virus to a few established cell lines was attempted. The plasmids encoding CRISPR/Cas9 genes along with gRNA complementary to the target sequences were designed, synthesised, and transfected into ASFV-infected PPAM cells. RESULTS: The reconstituted virus showed similar kinetics of replication in comparison to the parent virus isolate. CONCLUSION: Taking into account the usefulness of the developed CRISPR/Cas9 system it has been shown that modification of the A238L, EP402R, and 9GL genes might occur with low frequency, resulting in difficulties in separation of various virus populations.

African Swine Fever Virus - The Possible Role of Flies and Other Insects in Virus Transmission.

African swine fever (ASF) is an acute viral haemorrhagic disease of pigs and wild boars. It presents a serious threat to pig production worldwide, and since 2007, ASF outbreaks have been recorded in the Caucasus, Eastern Europe, and the Baltic States. In 2014, the disease was detected in Poland. ASF is on the list of notifiable diseases of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Due to the lack of an available vaccine and treatment, the countermeasures against the disease consist in early detection of the virus in the pig population and control of its spread through the elimination of herds affected by disease outbreaks. Knowledge of the potential vectors of the virus and its persistence in the environment is crucial to prevent further disease spread and to understand the new epidemiology for how it compares to the previous experience in Spain gathered in the 1970s and 1980s.

Point-of-service Diagnostic Technology for Detection of Swine Viral Diseases.

INTRODUCTION: A research project is underway aiming to develop a field diagnostic tool for six important viruses of the pig sector, namely: African swine fever virus (ASFV), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), swine influenza virus (SIV), porcine parvovirus (PPV), porcine circovirus (PCV2), and classical swine fever virus (CSFV). MATERIAL AND METHODS: To obtain a preliminary sounding of the interest in this type of instrument among its potential operators, a questionnaire was drawn up and submitted to three categories of stakeholders: farmers, veterinarians, and others (including scientific and technical staff working on animal farms). Four countries participated: Italy, Greece, Hungary, and Poland. RESULTS: In total, 83 replies were collected and analysed in a breakdown by stakeholder type and pertinence, where the areas were the importance of the main diseases within the different countries, diagnostic tool operational issues, and economic issues. CONCLUSION: The main end-users of this kind of instrument are expected to be private veterinarians and pig producers. The infectious agents seeming to be most interesting to diagnose with the instrument are PRRSV, SIV, PPV, and PCV2. The most decisive parameters which have been selected by the stakeholders are sensitivity, cost, simplicity, and time required to obtain results. The economic issue analysis showed that the majority of those who would prefer to buy rather than rent the device are willing to pay up to €3,000 for a diagnostic field tool.